1.
Guyton, A. C. & Hall, J. E. Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology. (Elsevier, 2016).
2.
Tuma, M., Canestrini, S., Alwahab, Z. & Marshall, J. Trauma and Endothelial Glycocalyx. SHOCK 46, 352–357 (2016).
3.
Piehl, M. D. et al. Pulse contour cardiac output analysis in a piglet model of severe hemorrhagic shock*. Critical Care Medicine 36, 1189–1195 (2008).
4.
American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology.
5.
Lord, J. M. et al. The systemic immune response to trauma: an overview of pathophysiology and treatment. The Lancet 384, 1455–1465 (2014).
6.
Brohi, K., Cohen, M. J. & Davenport, R. A. Acute coagulopathy of trauma: mechanism, identification and effect. Current Opinion in Critical Care 13, 680–685 (2007).
7.
Pranskunas, A., Koopmans, M., Koetsier, P. M., Pilvinis, V. & Boerma, E. C. Microcirculatory blood flow as a tool to select ICU patients eligible for fluid therapy. Intensive Care Medicine 39, 612–619 (2013).
8.
Trzeciak, S. et al. Early microcirculatory perfusion derangements in patients with severe sepsis and septic shock: Relationship to hemodynamics, oxygen transport, and survival. Annals of Emergency Medicine 49, 88-98.e2 (2007).
9.
Jhanji, S., Lee, C., Watson, D., Hinds, C. & Pearse, R. M. Microvascular flow and tissue oxygenation after major abdominal surgery: association with post-operative complications. Intensive Care Medicine 35, 671–677 (2009).
10.
Tachon, G. et al. Microcirculatory Alterations in Traumatic Hemorrhagic Shock*. Critical Care Medicine 42, 1433–1441 (2014).
11.
Hutchings, S. D. et al. Microcirculatory perfusion shows wide inter-individual variation and is important in determining shock reversal during resuscitation in a porcine experimental model of complex traumatic hemorrhagic shock. Intensive Care Medicine Experimental 4, (2016).
12.
Jhanji, S., Stirling, S., Patel, N., Hinds, C. J. & Pearse, R. M. The effect of increasing doses of norepinephrine on tissue oxygenation and microvascular flow in patients with septic shock*. Critical Care Medicine 37, 1961–1966 (2009).
13.
Morelli, A. et al. Effects of vasopressinergic receptor agonists on sublingual microcirculation in norepinephrine-dependent septic shock. Critical Care 15, (2011).
14.
Morelli, A. et al. Levosimendan for resuscitating the microcirculation in patients with septic shock: a randomized controlled study. Critical Care 14, (2010).
15.
Jhanji, S. et al. Haemodynamic optimisation improves tissue microvascular flow and oxygenation after major surgery: a randomised controlled trial. Critical Care 14, (2010).
16.
Xu, J. et al. Fluid Resuscitation Guided by Sublingual Partial Pressure of Carbon Dioxide During Hemorrhagic Shock in a Porcine Model. Shock 39, 361–365 (2013).
17.
Shoemaker, W. C., Appel, P. L., Kram, H. B., Waxman, K. & Lee, T.-S. Prospective Trial of Supranormal Values of Survivors as Therapeutic Goals in High-Risk Surgical Patients. Chest 94, 1176–1186 (1988).
18.
Starodub, R. et al. Association of serum lactate and survival outcomes in patients undergoing therapeutic hypothermia after cardiac arrest. Resuscitation 84, 1078–1082 (2013).
19.
Marik, P. E., Baram, M. & Vahid, B. Does Central Venous Pressure Predict Fluid Responsiveness?*: A Systematic Review of the Literature and the Tale of Seven Mares. Chest 134, 172–178 (2008).
20.
Pierrakos, C. et al. Can changes in arterial pressure be used to detect changes in cardiac index during fluid challenge in patients with septic shock? Intensive Care Medicine 38, 422–428 (2012).
21.
Alhashemi, J. A., Cecconi, M. & Hofer, C. K. Cardiac output monitoring: an integrative perspective. Critical Care 15, (2011).
22.
Cecconi, M. et al. Fluid challenges in intensive care: the FENICE study. Intensive Care Medicine 41, 1529–1537 (2015).
23.
Pierrakos, C. et al. Can changes in arterial pressure be used to detect changes in cardiac index during fluid challenge in patients with septic shock? Intensive Care Medicine 38, 422–428 (2012).
24.
Monge García, M. I. et al. Effects of fluid administration on arterial load in septic shock patients. Intensive Care Medicine 41, 1247–1255 (2015).
25.
Aya, H. D. et al. Pharmacodynamic Analysis of a Fluid Challenge. Critical Care Medicine 44, 880–891 (2016).
26.
Aya, H. D. et al. Hemodynamic Effect of Different Doses of Fluids for a Fluid Challenge. Critical Care Medicine 45, e161–e168 (2017).
27.
Nunes, T. S. O. et al. Duration of hemodynamic effects of crystalloids in patients with circulatory shock after initial resuscitation. Annals of Intensive Care 4, (2014).
28.
Monnet, X. et al. Passive leg raising predicts fluid responsiveness in the critically ill*. Critical Care Medicine 34, 1402–1407 (2006).
29.
Clarke, D. L. et al. Mortality rates increase dramatically below a systolic blood pressure of 105-mm Hg in septic surgical patients. The American Journal of Surgery 212, 941–945 (2016).
30.
Lee, Y. K. et al. Prognostic Value of Lactate and Central Venous Oxygen Saturation after Early Resuscitation in Sepsis Patients. PLOS ONE 11, (2016).
31.
Angus, D. C. & van der Poll, T. Severe Sepsis and Septic Shock. New England Journal of Medicine 369, 840–851 (2013).
32.
A Randomized Trial of Protocol-Based Care for Early Septic Shock. The New England Journal of Medicine 370, 1683–1693.
33.
Mellhammar, L. et al. Sepsis Incidence: A Population-Based Study. Open Forum Infectious Diseases 3, (2016).
34.
Assessment of Global Incidence and Mortality of Hospital-treated Sepsis. Current Estimates and Limitations | American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. https://www.atsjournals.org/doi/10.1164/rccm.201504-0781OC.
35.
Rhodes, A. et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign. Critical Care Medicine 45, 486–552 (2017).
36.
Reinhart, K. et al. Recognizing Sepsis as a Global Health Priority — A WHO Resolution. New England Journal of Medicine 377, 414–417 (2017).
37.
Tackling drug-resistant infections globally.
38.
A European One Health Action Plan against Antimicrobial Resistance.
39.
De Backer, D. et al. Challenges in the management of septic shock: a narrative review. Intensive Care Medicine (2019) doi:10.1007/s00134-019-05544-x.
40.
Reynolds, H. R. & Hochman, J. S. Cardiogenic Shock: Current Concepts and Improving Outcomes. Circulation 117, 686–697 (2008).
41.
Haemodynamic Monitoring: ESICM EDIC PACT Study Tool.
42.
Elliott, P. Rational use of inotropes. Anaesthesia & Intensive Care Medicine 7, 326–330 (2006).
43.
Napp, L. C., Kühn, C. & Bauersachs, J. ECMO in cardiac arrest and cardiogenic shock. Herz 42, 27–44 (2017).
44.
Mebazaa, A. et al. Levosimendan vs Dobutamine for Patients With Acute Decompensated Heart Failure. JAMA 297, (2007).
45.
Gray, A. et al. Noninvasive Ventilation in Acute Cardiogenic Pulmonary Edema. New England Journal of Medicine 359, 142–151 (2008).
46.
Masip, J. et al. Noninvasive Ventilation in Acute Cardiogenic Pulmonary Edema. JAMA 294, (2005).
47.
Sackner-Bernstein, J. D., Kowalski, M., Fox, M. & Aaronson, K. Short-term Risk of Death After Treatment With Nesiritide for Decompensated Heart Failure. JAMA 293, (2005).
48.
Thiele, H. et al. Intraaortic Balloon Support for Myocardial Infarction with Cardiogenic Shock. New England Journal of Medicine 367, 1287–1296 (2012).
49.
Thiele, H. et al. Percutaneous short-term active mechanical support devices in cardiogenic shock: a systematic review and collaborative meta-analysis of randomized trials. European Heart Journal 38, 3523–3531 (2017).
50.
Circulation.
51.
Booth, R. A. et al. Performance of BNP and NT-proBNP for diagnosis of heart failure in primary care patients: a systematic review. Heart Failure Reviews 19, 439–451 (2014).
52.
Napp, L. C., Kühn, C. & Bauersachs, J. ECMO in cardiac arrest and cardiogenic shock. Herz 42, 27–44 (2017).
53.
Major trauma: assessment and initial management  | Guidance and guidelines | NICE.
54.
Acute upper gastrointestinal bleeding in over 16s: management  | Guidance and guidelines | NICE.
55.
The European Society of GI Endoscopy (ESGE) Guideline on the diagnosis and management of nonvariceal UGI haemorrhage.
56.
Solomon, Caren GLaine, Loren. Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding Due to a Peptic Ulcer. The New England Journal of Medicine 374, 2367–2376.
57.
Laine, Loren, MD. Blood Transfusion for Gastrointestinal Bleeding. The New England Journal of Medicine 368, 75–6.
58.
Oyeniyi, B. T. et al. Trends in 1029 trauma deaths at a level 1 trauma center: Impact of a bleeding control bundle of care. Injury 48, 5–12 (2017).
59.
Holcomb, J. B. et al. Transfusion of Plasma, Platelets, and Red Blood Cells in a 1:1:1 vs a 1:1:2 Ratio and Mortality in Patients With Severe Trauma. JAMA 313, (2015).
60.
Cannon, J. W. et al. Damage control resuscitation in patients with severe traumatic hemorrhage. Journal of Trauma and Acute Care Surgery 82, 605–617 (2017).
61.
Shackelford, S. A. et al. Association of Prehospital Blood Product Transfusion During Medical Evacuation of Combat Casualties in Afghanistan With Acute and 30-Day Survival. JAMA 318, (2017).
62.
Spinella, P. C. et al. Whole blood for hemostatic resuscitation of major bleeding. Transfusion 56, S190–S202 (2016).
63.
Holcomb, J. B. Reconstitution: Reverse Engineering. The Journal of Trauma: Injury, Infection, and Critical Care 70, S65–S67 (2011).
64.
Glassberg, E. et al. Freeze-Dried Plasma at the Point of Injury. Shock 40, 444–450 (2013).
65.
An Ethical Framework for Controlled Donation after Circulatory Death: Executive Summary - Academy of Medical Royal Colleges. http://www.aomrc.org.uk/publications/reports-guidance/ethical-framework-controlled-donation-circulatory-death-executive-summary/.
66.
A code of practice for the diagnosis and confirmation of death - Academy of Medical Royal Colleges. http://www.aomrc.org.uk/publications/reports-guidance/code-practice-diagnosis-confirmation-death/.
67.
Blackstock, M. J. & Ray, D. C. Organ donation after circulatory death. European Journal of Emergency Medicine 21, 324–329 (2014).
68.
Sampson, Hugh AMuñoz-Furlong, AnneCampbell, Ronna LAdkinson, N FranklinBock, S Allan. Second symposium on the definition and management of anaphylaxis: Summary report--Second National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease/Food Allergy and Anaphylaxis Network symposium. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 117, 391–397.
69.
Jiwaji, Z., Brady, S., McIntyre, L. A., Gray, A. & Walsh, T. S. Emergency department management of early sepsis: a national survey of emergency medicine and intensive care consultants. Emergency Medicine Journal 31, 1000–1005 (2014).
70.
A Comparison of Albumin and Saline for Fluid Resuscitation in the Intensive Care Unit. New England Journal of Medicine 350, 2247–2256 (2004).
71.
Maitland, K. et al. Mortality after Fluid Bolus in African Children with Severe Infection. New England Journal of Medicine 364, 2483–2495 (2011).
72.
Myburgh, J. A. et al. Hydroxyethyl Starch or Saline for Fluid Resuscitation in Intensive Care. New England Journal of Medicine 367, 1901–1911 (2012).
73.
Antonelli, M. & Sandroni, C. Hydroxyethyl Starch for Intravenous Volume Replacement. JAMA 309, (2013).
74.
Young, P. et al. Effect of a Buffered Crystalloid Solution vs Saline on Acute Kidney Injury Among Patients in the Intensive Care Unit. JAMA 314, (2015).
75.
Vincent, J. L. Anemia and Blood Transfusion in Critically Ill Patients. JAMA 288, (2002).
76.
Rodriguez, R. M., Lum-Lung, M., Dixon, K. & Nothmann, A. A prospective study on esophageal Doppler hemodynamic assessment in the ED. The American Journal of Emergency Medicine 24, 658–663 (2006).
77.
Howell, M. D., Donnino, M., Clardy, P., Talmor, D. & Shapiro, N. I. Occult hypoperfusion and mortality in patients with suspected infection. Intensive Care Medicine 33, 1892–1899 (2007).
78.
Helmerhorst, H. J. F., Roos-Blom, M.-J., van Westerloo, D. J. & de Jonge, E. Association Between Arterial Hyperoxia and Outcome in Subsets of Critical Illness. Critical Care Medicine 43, 1508–1519 (2015).
79.
Kilgannon, J. H. Association Between Arterial Hyperoxia Following Resuscitation From Cardiac Arrest and In-Hospital Mortality. JAMA 303, (2010).
80.
Stub, D. et al. Air Versus Oxygen in ST-Segment–Elevation Myocardial Infarction. Circulation 131, 2143–2150 (2015).
81.
Rincon, F. et al. Association Between Hyperoxia and Mortality After Stroke. Critical Care Medicine 42, 387–396 (2014).
82.
Perel, P., Roberts, I. & Ker, K. Colloids versus crystalloids for fluid resuscitation in critically ill patients. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (2013) doi:10.1002/14651858.CD000567.pub6.
83.
Young, P. et al. Effect of a Buffered Crystalloid Solution vs Saline on Acute Kidney Injury Among Patients in the Intensive Care Unit. JAMA 314, (2015).
84.
Angus, D. C. et al. A systematic review and meta-analysis of early goal-directed therapy for septic shock: the ARISE, ProCESS and ProMISe Investigators. Intensive Care Medicine 41, 1549–1560 (2015).
85.
Maitland, K. et al. Mortality after Fluid Bolus in African Children with Severe Infection. New England Journal of Medicine 364, 2483–2495 (2011).
86.
Maitland, K. et al. Exploring mechanisms of excess mortality with early fluid resuscitation: insightsfrom the FEAST trial. BMC Medicine 11, (2013).
87.
Ospina-Tascon, G. et al. Effects of fluids on microvascular perfusion in patients with severe sepsis. Intensive Care Medicine 36, 949–955 (2010).
88.
Glassford, N., Eastwood, G. & Bellomo, R. Physiological changes after fluid bolus therapy in sepsis: a systematic review of the contemporary literature. Critical Care 18, (2014).
89.
Guidet, B. & Ait-Oufella, H. Fluid resuscitation should respect the endothelial glycocalyx layer. Critical Care 18, (2014).
90.
Chappell, D. et al. Hypervolemia increases release of atrial natriuretic peptide and shedding of the endothelial glycocalyx. Critical Care 18, (2014).
91.
Young, P. P., Cotton, B. A. & Goodnough, L. T. Massive Transfusion Protocols for Patients With Substantial Hemorrhage. Transfusion Medicine Reviews 25, 293–303 (2011).
92.
Hogshire, L. & Carson, J. L. Red blood cell transfusion. Current Opinion in Hematology 20, 546–551 (2013).
93.
Lucas, C. E. & Ledgerwood, A. M. FFP:RBC Resuscitation Ratio and Post-Shock Fluid Uptake. JAMA Surgery 148, (2013).
94.
Gonzalez, E. A. et al. Fresh Frozen Plasma Should be Given Earlier to Patients Requiring Massive Transfusion. The Journal of Trauma: Injury, Infection, and Critical Care 62, 112–119 (2007).
95.
Guidelines | British Society for Haematology. http://www.b-s-h.org.uk/guidelines/.
96.
Association of Anaesthetists of Great Britain and Ireland. http://www.aagbi.org/.
97.
Handbook of Transfusion Medicine. https://www.transfusionguidelines.org/transfusion-handbook.
98.
EMCrit Blog - Emergency Department Critical Care & Resuscitation. https://emcrit.org/.
99.
Nevin, D. G. & Brohi, K. Permissive hypotension for active haemorrhage in trauma. Anaesthesia (2017) doi:10.1111/anae.14034.
100.
Myles, P. S. et al. Tranexamic Acid in Patients Undergoing Coronary-Artery Surgery. New England Journal of Medicine 376, 136–148 (2017).
101.
Gayet-Ageron, A. et al. Effect of treatment delay on the effectiveness and safety of antifibrinolytics in acute severe haemorrhage: a meta-analysis of individual patient-level data from 40 138 bleeding patients. The Lancet 391, 125–132 (2018).
102.
World Population Ageing 2015.
103.
Physiology of Ageing. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1357303916302298.
104.
Sieck, G. C. Physiology of aging. Journal of Applied Physiology 95, 1333–1334 (2003).
105.
Sammy, I., Lecky, F., Sutton, A., Leaviss, J. & O’Cathain, A. Factors affecting mortality in older trauma patients—A systematic review and meta-analysis. Injury 47, 1170–1183 (2016).
106.
Cook, I. et al. End of Life Care and Do Not Resuscitate Orders: How Much Does Age Influence Decision Making? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Gerontology and Geriatric Medicine 3, (2017).
107.
O’Grady, N. P. et al. Guidelines for the prevention of intravascular catheter-related infections. American Journal of Infection Control 39, S1–S34 (2011).
108.
Prytherch, D. R., Smith, G. B., Schmidt, P. E. & Featherstone, P. I. ViEWS—Towards a national early warning score for detecting adult inpatient deterioration. Resuscitation 81, 932–937 (2010).
109.
Burch, V. C., Tarr, G. & Morroni, C. Modified early warning score predicts the need for hospital admission and inhospital mortality. Emergency Medicine Journal 25, 674–678 (2008).