1
Guyton AC, Hall JE. Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology. Thirteenth edition. Philadelphia, PA: : Elsevier 2016. https://www-vlebooks-com.ezproxy.library.qmul.ac.uk/Vleweb/Product/Index/748473?page=0
2
Tuma M, Canestrini S, Alwahab Z, et al. Trauma and Endothelial Glycocalyx. SHOCK 2016;46:352–7. doi:10.1097/SHK.0000000000000635
3
Piehl MD, Manning JE, McCurdy SL, et al. Pulse contour cardiac output analysis in a piglet model of severe hemorrhagic shock*. Critical Care Medicine 2008;36:1189–95. doi:10.1097/CCM.0B013E31816592A3
4
American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology. https://www.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/ajpregu.00304.2015
5
Lord JM, Midwinter MJ, Chen Y-F, et al. The systemic immune response to trauma: an overview of pathophysiology and treatment. The Lancet 2014;384:1455–65. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(14)60687-5
6
Brohi K, Cohen MJ, Davenport RA. Acute coagulopathy of trauma: mechanism, identification and effect. Current Opinion in Critical Care 2007;13:680–5. doi:10.1097/MCC.0b013e3282f1e78f
7
Pranskunas A, Koopmans M, Koetsier PM, et al. Microcirculatory blood flow as a tool to select ICU patients eligible for fluid therapy. Intensive Care Medicine 2013;39:612–9. doi:10.1007/s00134-012-2793-8
8
Trzeciak S, Dellinger RP, Parrillo JE, et al. Early microcirculatory perfusion derangements in patients with severe sepsis and septic shock: Relationship to hemodynamics, oxygen transport, and survival. Annals of Emergency Medicine 2007;49:88-98.e2. doi:10.1016/j.annemergmed.2006.08.021
9
Jhanji S, Lee C, Watson D, et al. Microvascular flow and tissue oxygenation after major abdominal surgery: association with post-operative complications. Intensive Care Medicine 2009;35:671–7. doi:10.1007/s00134-008-1325-z
10
Tachon G, Harrois A, Tanaka S, et al. Microcirculatory Alterations in Traumatic Hemorrhagic Shock*. Critical Care Medicine 2014;42:1433–41. doi:10.1097/CCM.0000000000000223
11
Hutchings SD, Naumann DN, Watts S, et al. Microcirculatory perfusion shows wide inter-individual variation and is important in determining shock reversal during resuscitation in a porcine experimental model of complex traumatic hemorrhagic shock. Intensive Care Medicine Experimental 2016;4. doi:10.1186/s40635-016-0088-z
12
Jhanji S, Stirling S, Patel N, et al. The effect of increasing doses of norepinephrine on tissue oxygenation and microvascular flow in patients with septic shock*. Critical Care Medicine 2009;37:1961–6. doi:10.1097/CCM.0b013e3181a00a1c
13
Morelli A, Donati A, Ertmer C, et al. Effects of vasopressinergic receptor agonists on sublingual microcirculation in norepinephrine-dependent septic shock. Critical Care 2011;15. doi:10.1186/cc10453
14
Morelli A, Donati A, Ertmer C, et al. Levosimendan for resuscitating the microcirculation in patients with septic shock: a randomized controlled study. Critical Care 2010;14. doi:10.1186/cc9387
15
Jhanji S, Vivian-Smith A, Lucena-Amaro S, et al. Haemodynamic optimisation improves tissue microvascular flow and oxygenation after major surgery: a randomised controlled trial. Critical Care 2010;14. doi:10.1186/cc9220
16
Xu J, Ma L, Sun S, et al. Fluid Resuscitation Guided by Sublingual Partial Pressure of Carbon Dioxide During Hemorrhagic Shock in a Porcine Model. Shock 2013;39:361–5. doi:10.1097/SHK.0b013e31828936aa
17
Shoemaker WC, Appel PL, Kram HB, et al. Prospective Trial of Supranormal Values of Survivors as Therapeutic Goals in High-Risk Surgical Patients. Chest 1988;94:1176–86. doi:10.1378/chest.94.6.1176
18
Starodub R, Abella BS, Grossestreuer AV, et al. Association of serum lactate and survival outcomes in patients undergoing therapeutic hypothermia after cardiac arrest. Resuscitation 2013;84:1078–82. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2013.02.001
19
Marik PE, Baram M, Vahid B. Does Central Venous Pressure Predict Fluid Responsiveness?*: A Systematic Review of the Literature and the Tale of Seven Mares. Chest 2008;134:172–8. doi:10.1378/chest.07-2331
20
Pierrakos C, Velissaris D, Scolletta S, et al. Can changes in arterial pressure be used to detect changes in cardiac index during fluid challenge in patients with septic shock? Intensive Care Medicine 2012;38:422–8. doi:10.1007/s00134-011-2457-0
21
Alhashemi JA, Cecconi M, Hofer CK. Cardiac output monitoring: an integrative perspective. Critical Care 2011;15. doi:10.1186/cc9996
22
Cecconi M, Hofer C, Teboul J-L, et al. Fluid challenges in intensive care: the FENICE study. Intensive Care Medicine 2015;41:1529–37. doi:10.1007/s00134-015-3850-x
23
Pierrakos C, Velissaris D, Scolletta S, et al. Can changes in arterial pressure be used to detect changes in cardiac index during fluid challenge in patients with septic shock? Intensive Care Medicine 2012;38:422–8. doi:10.1007/s00134-011-2457-0
24
Monge García MI, Guijo González P, Gracia Romero M, et al. Effects of fluid administration on arterial load in septic shock patients. Intensive Care Medicine 2015;41:1247–55. doi:10.1007/s00134-015-3898-7
25
Aya HD, Ster IC, Fletcher N, et al. Pharmacodynamic Analysis of a Fluid Challenge. Critical Care Medicine 2016;44:880–91. doi:10.1097/CCM.0000000000001517
26
Aya HD, Rhodes A, Chis Ster I, et al. Hemodynamic Effect of Different Doses of Fluids for a Fluid Challenge. Critical Care Medicine 2017;45:e161–8. doi:10.1097/CCM.0000000000002067
27
Nunes TSO, Ladeira RT, Bafi AT, et al. Duration of hemodynamic effects of crystalloids in patients with circulatory shock after initial resuscitation. Annals of Intensive Care 2014;4. doi:10.1186/s13613-014-0025-9
28
Monnet X, Rienzo M, Osman D, et al. Passive leg raising predicts fluid responsiveness in the critically ill*. Critical Care Medicine 2006;34:1402–7. doi:10.1097/01.CCM.0000215453.11735.06
29
Clarke DL, Chipps JA, Sartorius B, et al. Mortality rates increase dramatically below a systolic blood pressure of 105-mm Hg in septic surgical patients. The American Journal of Surgery 2016;212:941–5. doi:10.1016/j.amjsurg.2016.01.042
30
Lee YK, Hwang SY, Shin TG, et al. Prognostic Value of Lactate and Central Venous Oxygen Saturation after Early Resuscitation in Sepsis Patients. PLOS ONE 2016;11. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0153305
31
Angus DC, van der Poll T. Severe Sepsis and Septic Shock. New England Journal of Medicine 2013;369:840–51. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1208623
32
A Randomized Trial of Protocol-Based Care for Early Septic Shock. The New England Journal of Medicine;370:1683–93.https://search.proquest.com/docview/1520423050?pq-origsite=summon
33
Mellhammar L, Wullt S, Lindberg Å, et al. Sepsis Incidence: A Population-Based Study. Open Forum Infectious Diseases 2016;3. doi:10.1093/ofid/ofw207
34
Assessment of Global Incidence and Mortality of Hospital-treated Sepsis. Current Estimates and Limitations | American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. https://www.atsjournals.org/doi/10.1164/rccm.201504-0781OC
35
Rhodes A, Evans LE, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign. Critical Care Medicine 2017;45:486–552. doi:10.1097/CCM.0000000000002255
36
Reinhart K, Daniels R, Kissoon N, et al. Recognizing Sepsis as a Global Health Priority — A WHO Resolution. New England Journal of Medicine 2017;377:414–7. doi:10.1056/NEJMp1707170
37
Tackling drug-resistant infections globally. https://amr-review.org/sites/default/files/160518_Final%20paper_with%20cover.pdf
38
A European One Health Action Plan against Antimicrobial Resistance. https://ec.europa.eu/health/sites/health/files/antimicrobial_resistance/docs/amr_2017_action-plan.pdf
39
De Backer D, Cecconi M, Lipman J, et al. Challenges in the management of septic shock: a narrative review. Intensive Care Medicine Published Online First: 11 February 2019. doi:10.1007/s00134-019-05544-x
40
Reynolds HR, Hochman JS. Cardiogenic Shock: Current Concepts and Improving Outcomes. Circulation 2008;117:686–97. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.613596
41
Haemodynamic Monitoring: ESICM EDIC PACT Study Tool. https://www.esicm.org/education/
42
Elliott P. Rational use of inotropes. Anaesthesia & Intensive Care Medicine 2006;7:326–30. doi:10.1053/j.mpaic.2006.06.007
43
Napp LC, Kühn C, Bauersachs J. ECMO in cardiac arrest and cardiogenic shock. Herz 2017;42:27–44. doi:10.1007/s00059-016-4523-4
44
Mebazaa A, Nieminen MS, Packer M, et al. Levosimendan vs Dobutamine for Patients With Acute Decompensated Heart Failure. JAMA 2007;297. doi:10.1001/jama.297.17.1883
45
Gray A, Goodacre S, Newby DE, et al. Noninvasive Ventilation in Acute Cardiogenic Pulmonary Edema. New England Journal of Medicine 2008;359:142–51. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa0707992
46
Masip J, Roque M, Sánchez B, et al. Noninvasive Ventilation in Acute Cardiogenic Pulmonary Edema. JAMA 2005;294. doi:10.1001/jama.294.24.3124
47
Sackner-Bernstein JD, Kowalski M, Fox M, et al. Short-term Risk of Death After Treatment With Nesiritide for Decompensated Heart Failure. JAMA 2005;293. doi:10.1001/jama.293.15.1900
48
Thiele H, Zeymer U, Neumann F-J, et al. Intraaortic Balloon Support for Myocardial Infarction with Cardiogenic Shock. New England Journal of Medicine 2012;367:1287–96. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1208410
49
Thiele H, Jobs A, Ouweneel DM, et al. Percutaneous short-term active mechanical support devices in cardiogenic shock: a systematic review and collaborative meta-analysis of randomized trials. European Heart Journal 2017;38:3523–31. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehx363
50
Circulation. https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/CIR.0000000000000509
51
Booth RA, Hill SA, Don-Wauchope A, et al. Performance of BNP and NT-proBNP for diagnosis of heart failure in primary care patients: a systematic review. Heart Failure Reviews 2014;19:439–51. doi:10.1007/s10741-014-9445-8
52
Napp LC, Kühn C, Bauersachs J. ECMO in cardiac arrest and cardiogenic shock. Herz 2017;42:27–44. doi:10.1007/s00059-016-4523-4
53
Major trauma: assessment and initial management  | Guidance and guidelines | NICE. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng39
54
Acute upper gastrointestinal bleeding in over 16s: management  | Guidance and guidelines | NICE. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg141/chapter/1-guidance
55
The European Society of GI Endoscopy (ESGE) Guideline on the diagnosis and management of nonvariceal UGI haemorrhage. https://www.esge.com/assets/downloads/pdfs/guidelines/2015_s_0034_1393172.pdf
56
Solomon, Caren GLaine, Loren. Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding Due to a Peptic Ulcer. The New England Journal of Medicine;374:2367–76.https://search.proquest.com/docview/1798243079?pq-origsite=summon
57
Laine, Loren, MD. Blood Transfusion for Gastrointestinal Bleeding. The New England Journal of Medicine;368:75–6.https://search.proquest.com/docview/1266235512?pq-origsite=summon
58
Oyeniyi BT, Fox EE, Scerbo M, et al. Trends in 1029 trauma deaths at a level 1 trauma center: Impact of a bleeding control bundle of care. Injury 2017;48:5–12. doi:10.1016/j.injury.2016.10.037
59
Holcomb JB, Tilley BC, Baraniuk S, et al. Transfusion of Plasma, Platelets, and Red Blood Cells in a 1:1:1 vs a 1:1:2 Ratio and Mortality in Patients With Severe Trauma. JAMA 2015;313. doi:10.1001/jama.2015.12
60
Cannon JW, Khan MA, Raja AS, et al. Damage control resuscitation in patients with severe traumatic hemorrhage. Journal of Trauma and Acute Care Surgery 2017;82:605–17. doi:10.1097/TA.0000000000001333
61
Shackelford SA, del Junco DJ, Powell-Dunford N, et al. Association of Prehospital Blood Product Transfusion During Medical Evacuation of Combat Casualties in Afghanistan With Acute and 30-Day Survival. JAMA 2017;318. doi:10.1001/jama.2017.15097
62
Spinella PC, Pidcoke HF, Strandenes G, et al. Whole blood for hemostatic resuscitation of major bleeding. Transfusion 2016;56:S190–202. doi:10.1111/trf.13491
63
Holcomb JB. Reconstitution: Reverse Engineering. The Journal of Trauma: Injury, Infection, and Critical Care 2011;70:S65–7. doi:10.1097/TA.0b013e31821a609c
64
Glassberg E, Nadler R, Gendler S, et al. Freeze-Dried Plasma at the Point of Injury. Shock 2013;40:444–50. doi:10.1097/SHK.0000000000000047
65
An Ethical Framework for Controlled Donation after Circulatory Death: Executive Summary - Academy of Medical Royal Colleges. http://www.aomrc.org.uk/publications/reports-guidance/ethical-framework-controlled-donation-circulatory-death-executive-summary/
66
A code of practice for the diagnosis and confirmation of death - Academy of Medical Royal Colleges. http://www.aomrc.org.uk/publications/reports-guidance/code-practice-diagnosis-confirmation-death/
67
Blackstock MJ, Ray DC. Organ donation after circulatory death. European Journal of Emergency Medicine 2014;21:324–9. doi:10.1097/MEJ.0000000000000082
68
Sampson, Hugh AMuñoz-Furlong, AnneCampbell, Ronna LAdkinson, N FranklinBock, S Allan. Second symposium on the definition and management of anaphylaxis: Summary report--Second National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease/Food Allergy and Anaphylaxis Network symposium. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology;117:391–7.https://search.proquest.com/docview/1504744658?pq-origsite=summon
69
Jiwaji Z, Brady S, McIntyre LA, et al. Emergency department management of early sepsis: a national survey of emergency medicine and intensive care consultants. Emergency Medicine Journal 2014;31:1000–5. doi:10.1136/emermed-2013-202883
70
A Comparison of Albumin and Saline for Fluid Resuscitation in the Intensive Care Unit. New England Journal of Medicine 2004;350:2247–56. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa040232
71
Maitland K, Kiguli S, Opoka RO, et al. Mortality after Fluid Bolus in African Children with Severe Infection. New England Journal of Medicine 2011;364:2483–95. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1101549
72
Myburgh JA, Finfer S, Bellomo R, et al. Hydroxyethyl Starch or Saline for Fluid Resuscitation in Intensive Care. New England Journal of Medicine 2012;367:1901–11. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1209759
73
Antonelli M, Sandroni C. Hydroxyethyl Starch for Intravenous Volume Replacement. JAMA 2013;309. doi:10.1001/jama.2013.851
74
Young P, Bailey M, Beasley R, et al. Effect of a Buffered Crystalloid Solution vs Saline on Acute Kidney Injury Among Patients in the Intensive Care Unit. JAMA 2015;314. doi:10.1001/jama.2015.12334
75
Vincent JL. Anemia and Blood Transfusion in Critically Ill Patients. JAMA 2002;288. doi:10.1001/jama.288.12.1499
76
Rodriguez RM, Lum-Lung M, Dixon K, et al. A prospective study on esophageal Doppler hemodynamic assessment in the ED. The American Journal of Emergency Medicine 2006;24:658–63. doi:10.1016/j.ajem.2006.02.006
77
Howell MD, Donnino M, Clardy P, et al. Occult hypoperfusion and mortality in patients with suspected infection. Intensive Care Medicine 2007;33:1892–9. doi:10.1007/s00134-007-0680-5
78
Helmerhorst HJF, Roos-Blom M-J, van Westerloo DJ, et al. Association Between Arterial Hyperoxia and Outcome in Subsets of Critical Illness. Critical Care Medicine 2015;43:1508–19. doi:10.1097/CCM.0000000000000998
79
Kilgannon JH. Association Between Arterial Hyperoxia Following Resuscitation From Cardiac Arrest and In-Hospital Mortality. JAMA 2010;303. doi:10.1001/jama.2010.707
80
Stub D, Smith K, Bernard S, et al. Air Versus Oxygen in ST-Segment–Elevation Myocardial Infarction. Circulation 2015;131:2143–50. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.114.014494
81
Rincon F, Kang J, Maltenfort M, et al. Association Between Hyperoxia and Mortality After Stroke. Critical Care Medicine 2014;42:387–96. doi:10.1097/CCM.0b013e3182a27732
82
Perel P, Roberts I, Ker K. Colloids versus crystalloids for fluid resuscitation in critically ill patients. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews Published Online First: 28 February 2013. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD000567.pub6
83
Young P, Bailey M, Beasley R, et al. Effect of a Buffered Crystalloid Solution vs Saline on Acute Kidney Injury Among Patients in the Intensive Care Unit. JAMA 2015;314. doi:10.1001/jama.2015.12334
84
Angus DC, Barnato AE, Bell D, et al. A systematic review and meta-analysis of early goal-directed therapy for septic shock: the ARISE, ProCESS and ProMISe Investigators. Intensive Care Medicine 2015;41:1549–60. doi:10.1007/s00134-015-3822-1
85
Maitland K, Kiguli S, Opoka RO, et al. Mortality after Fluid Bolus in African Children with Severe Infection. New England Journal of Medicine 2011;364:2483–95. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1101549
86
Maitland K, George EC, Evans JA, et al. Exploring mechanisms of excess mortality with early fluid resuscitation: insightsfrom the FEAST trial. BMC Medicine 2013;11. doi:10.1186/1741-7015-11-68
87
Ospina-Tascon G, Neves AP, Occhipinti G, et al. Effects of fluids on microvascular perfusion in patients with severe sepsis. Intensive Care Medicine 2010;36:949–55. doi:10.1007/s00134-010-1843-3
88
Glassford N, Eastwood G, Bellomo R. Physiological changes after fluid bolus therapy in sepsis: a systematic review of the contemporary literature. Critical Care 2014;18. doi:10.1186/cc14037
89
Guidet B, Ait-Oufella H. Fluid resuscitation should respect the endothelial glycocalyx layer. Critical Care 2014;18. doi:10.1186/s13054-014-0707-6
90
Chappell D, Bruegger D, Potzel J, et al. Hypervolemia increases release of atrial natriuretic peptide and shedding of the endothelial glycocalyx. Critical Care 2014;18. doi:10.1186/s13054-014-0538-5
91
Young PP, Cotton BA, Goodnough LT. Massive Transfusion Protocols for Patients With Substantial Hemorrhage. Transfusion Medicine Reviews 2011;25:293–303. doi:10.1016/j.tmrv.2011.04.002
92
Hogshire L, Carson JL. Red blood cell transfusion. Current Opinion in Hematology 2013;20:546–51. doi:10.1097/MOH.0b013e32836508bd
93
Lucas CE, Ledgerwood AM. FFP:RBC Resuscitation Ratio and Post-Shock Fluid Uptake. JAMA Surgery 2013;148. doi:10.1001/jamasurg.2013.623
94
Gonzalez EA, Moore FA, Holcomb JB, et al. Fresh Frozen Plasma Should be Given Earlier to Patients Requiring Massive Transfusion. The Journal of Trauma: Injury, Infection, and Critical Care 2007;62:112–9. doi:10.1097/01.ta.0000250497.08101.8b
95
Guidelines | British Society for Haematology. http://www.b-s-h.org.uk/guidelines/
96
Association of Anaesthetists of Great Britain and Ireland. http://www.aagbi.org/
97
Handbook of Transfusion Medicine. https://www.transfusionguidelines.org/transfusion-handbook
98
EMCrit Blog - Emergency Department Critical Care & Resuscitation. https://emcrit.org/
99
Nevin DG, Brohi K. Permissive hypotension for active haemorrhage in trauma. Anaesthesia Published Online First: 22 September 2017. doi:10.1111/anae.14034
100
Myles PS, Smith JA, Forbes A, et al. Tranexamic Acid in Patients Undergoing Coronary-Artery Surgery. New England Journal of Medicine 2017;376:136–48. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1606424
101
Gayet-Ageron A, Prieto-Merino D, Ker K, et al. Effect of treatment delay on the effectiveness and safety of antifibrinolytics in acute severe haemorrhage: a meta-analysis of individual patient-level data from 40 138 bleeding patients. The Lancet 2018;391:125–32. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(17)32455-8
102
World Population Ageing 2015. http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/publications/pdf/ageing/WPA2015_Report.pdf
103
Physiology of Ageing. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1357303916302298
104
Sieck GC. Physiology of aging. Journal of Applied Physiology 2003;95:1333–4. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00718.2003
105
Sammy I, Lecky F, Sutton A, et al. Factors affecting mortality in older trauma patients—A systematic review and meta-analysis. Injury 2016;47:1170–83. doi:10.1016/j.injury.2016.02.027
106
Cook I, Kirkup AL, Langham LJ, et al. End of Life Care and Do Not Resuscitate Orders: How Much Does Age Influence Decision Making? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Gerontology and Geriatric Medicine 2017;3. doi:10.1177/2333721417713422
107
O’Grady NP, Alexander M, Burns LA, et al. Guidelines for the prevention of intravascular catheter-related infections. American Journal of Infection Control 2011;39:S1–34. doi:10.1016/j.ajic.2011.01.003
108
Prytherch DR, Smith GB, Schmidt PE, et al. ViEWS—Towards a national early warning score for detecting adult inpatient deterioration. Resuscitation 2010;81:932–7. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2010.04.014
109
Burch VC, Tarr G, Morroni C. Modified early warning score predicts the need for hospital admission and inhospital mortality. Emergency Medicine Journal 2008;25:674–8. doi:10.1136/emj.2007.057661